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This paper deals with the historical origin of a sacred space called Shāh Jā Qadam (literally, Lord’s foot). It is located at Amīr Pīr, Sindh, Pakistan, and attracts thousands of Ismāʿīlīs throughout the year. Without even actually knowing the history of Shāh Jā Qadam, many Ismāʿīlīs still continue to visit this sacred space as a part of their family tradition. Owing to the paucity of reliable historical sources, hitherto not even a single systematic attempt has been made in the academia to study this site. Over time, the history of Shāh Jā Qadam has shrouded under a thick layer of myths and legends, creating a serious challenge for the scholars of Ismāʿīlī and Sindhi studies. Therefore, it is with the intention to fill this research gap that this paper has been developed. The research aspect of this paper is informed by both the field work and the examination of relevant archives undertaken by the author. The subject-matter and methodology used to inscribe this paper clearly indicates that in order to construct even a simple version of the history of the Satpanth (literally, true path) Ismāʿīlī tradition—let alone the question of understanding and appreciating its complexity—scholars will have to pay due attention to the local and regional oral Ismāʿīlī narratives, which are quite often ignored in the name of hagiography, mythology and legend. Hence, this paper sheds some light on the historical origin and structural evolution of Shāh Jā Qadam—a place which still holds immense historical, cultural, social, political and religious significance for many Ismāʿīlīs.

Keywords: Aga Khan I, Amīr Pīr,Ismāʿīlī, Satpanth, Shāh Jā Qadam

Ali Jan S. Damani 2021. The King has arrived from the West: A Preliminary Study on the Historical Origin and Structural Evolution of Shāh Jā Qadam. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 2, pp. 103-118

The present study is an attempt to bring forth the typo technological aspect of iron implements unearthed from the salvage operation conducted in a Cist burial at Niramakulam, District Pathanamthitta, Kerala. To know the properties of metal a quantitative chemical analysis has been done by using Thermo Scientific Niton XL3t XRF Analyser. Fifteen specimens were selected for the analysis which includes knives, sickles, nails, slags and some unidentified objects. Typology, percentage of composition of metal, comparative study with other iron artefacts reported in Kerala and chronology of the implements with the help of C14 dates are discussed in this paper. The highest percentage of iron found in a knife is 95.15%, and with the help of carbon dating from the site, the chronology of iron implements can be dated to 4th century BCE.

Keywords: Iron objects, Niramakulam, Typology, Chemical analysis, Comparative study, chronology

Ambily, C.S., Kumar, A., Rajesh, S.V., & Abhayan, G.S. 2021. Analysis of Iron Artefacts from Megalithic context at Niramakulam, Pamba river basin, South Kerala. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 2, pp. 119-132.

From 2016, The Champhai district in Mizoram, has been an area of much interest to scholars, organisations like Archaeological Survey of India, Art and Culture Department, Mizoram, INTACH-Mizoram Chapter and individuals since. Recently (2016) the villagers in the district encountered surface finding by chance which have enormously helped in enhancing the field surveys. This often-led scholars to understand that Champhai district as ‘an abode of archaeological remains.’ Almost every village have some archaeological remain that can convey many important aspects to researchers. The traces for any primary site or a proper trail excavation is not feasible. A village to village survey, literature review, interviews and discussion with locals were used as research methodology in order to understand the area under study. Mizo are the natives who have been erecting memorial stones since the time they occupied this present area. Rock art or engraving are mainly found on memorial stones, rock outcrops and rock boulders. It speaks voluminous entity of Mizo culture and is still a living tradition in Mizoram. Mizo never stayed at a site for longer than 5-6 years. The longest stay were mostly 10 years which were only in rare cases. Instances like they could not find a strategic location in a geographical setting to protect themselves from enemy’s attack. In certain occasion, the new site for habitation was not suitable for farming as well as prevalent of water shortage. However, while connecting the dots on habitation or settlement pattern with the memorial stone, it still does not create a proper picture unlike the south Indian Megaliths. Memorial stone of Mizoram are mostly brought from its original location and erected on the entry of the village.

Keywords: Champhai, Site Tracing, Mizo, Culture, Movement, Rock art

Jenla, A. 2021. Rock Engravings and Indigenous Art of Champhai District, Mizoram. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 2,
pp. 133-145.

The article by Dipannita Das has a detailed study on the socio- economic aspect of Sattras which plays a vital role in social and economic system of Majuli for accelerating its functions. Other than revenue system these Sattras have income generating sources like pottery, masks, boat making, manuscripts, handcrafts, incense sticks, metallurgy manufacturing industries etc. The Sattras are situated in mystical isle of Majuli, Assam which is known to be the largest inhabited fresh water river island in the world. Set amidst the mighty Brahmaputra, the only mythical male river, Majuli enjoys the status of a peerless bio-diversity hot spot. The word “Sattra” has its origin in Rigveda and it is significant that being a Vedic word it has been in continuously extensive use in religious scriptures, sanskrit literature and in other regional literature till today. The SattraInstitution of Assam is a hallmark of the religio-cultural resurgence brought about by the Bhakti movement in Assam during the 15th-17th cent. The study focusses on pottery as a traditional form of cottage industry of Majuli and a form of barter system among the inhabitants of this island.

The economy of Sattra is mainly related with its immovable property like land, forest, water body etc. the contribution by its devotees and well wishers also play an important role. The purpose of the study is to see the ethnographical prospects and socio-cultural and economic set up of the Sattras in Majuli. This study intends to research and tries to relate it with Archaeology through symbolism and cognitive way, and will surely benefit in the field of New Archaeology. The existence of this cultural heritage is under serious threat due to the recurring floods and incessant bankline erosion by the Brahmaputra and its tributaries.

Keywords: Sattras, Pottery, Boat manufacture, Barter System, Bhakti Movement, New Archaeology

Das, D. 2021. Role of Sattras (Vaishnavite Monasteries) in the Socio-Economic Sphere of Majuli, Assam. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 2, pp. 147-163.

The VirañchiNārāyaṇa temple dedicated to lord Surya at Buguda in Ganjam district (Odisha State) is richly decorated with colourful wall paintings that reflect the religious and ideological feelings of the people. The mural paintings of the temple were most likely executed in 1820s by the professional artists who followed closely the illustrated manuscripts and the paṭachitras. Of the wall paintings of the temple more than half of the wall space was devoted to the Rāmāyaṇa scenes while the rest of the walls exhibit succinctly the Krishṇalīlas and Daśāvatāras besides a large map of the Puri temple. Although these murals have drawn the attention of the art historians earlier who studied them briefly from different perspectives an attempt is made here to focus on the iconography, iconology and the themes chosen by the artists in narrating the Rāmāyaṇa story and to probe into the probable reasons behind the selection of the specific themes that are not commonly encountered in the plastic art of South India. The cultural atmosphere in 18th and 19th centuries in Odisha can be gleaned through the study of the Rāmāyaṇa episodes as they throw much light on the social conditions, traditions and customary practices. Further it is endeavoured to discuss and identify certain scenes depicted in the temple at Buguda which are badly damaged with reference to the Rāmāyaṇa scenes portrayed on the walls of the Jagannātha temple at Kanchili of Andhra Pradesh State.

Keywords: Ahalyā, Bharata, Dundubhi, Guhya, Hanumān, Māricha, Putrakāmēṣṭi

Krishnakumari, M. 2021. Visualizing the Ramayana Tale through the Wall Paintings of a Temple at Buguda. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 2, pp. 175-201.

Salvage archaeology in the research arena of new Archaeology is now-a-days a very serious academic pursuit since the methodology of such an exercise or investigation involves many sensitive aspects of or data related to the physical and social sciences. Any attempt to reconstruct the rise arid growth of human settlements or societies of the Land/River basin/ Coastal region, including the history of human activities—seafaring or otherwise—certainly requires or demands scientific investigation. I have limited expertise to encounter, combat, or entertain the new dimension of research methodology based on scientific archaeology. Therefore, the term Salvage Archaeology’ coined here may not be visualized in terms of scientific dimensions. A recent study into the archaeological profession in South Asian countries resulted in recognizing Salvage Archaeology as a major topic that needs to attempt. The present paper highlights the salvage archaeological context in two important archaeological sites of Eastern India. These two important sites have been situated in the Damodar river valley (West Bengal) and Mahanadi river basin (Orissa). These two sites are Telkupi in Puruliya and another is the Gopinathdeva temple is situated in the Narayangarh district of Orissa. This paper attempts to a preliminary case study of these sites based on the salvage archaeological perspectives.

Keywords: Salvage Archaeology, Damodar, Mahanadi, River valley

Das, R. K. 2021. Salvage Archaeology: Scope and Limitations in India special emphasis on Damodar and Mahanadi river valley. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 2, pp. 203-217.

The excavation at Chirand, District Saran, Bihar, have thrown a new light on the Indian neolithic culture. It is significant to note that so far all neolithic site in India have been located on hill-tops or on foot-hills but for the first time, a full-fledge neolithic culture has been discovered in the middle Gangetic basin. The amazing discovery of the Neolithic bone artefacts at Chirand has provided ample material to the archaeologists for the study of the primitive of the bone tool making and assesses the maturity of the vision of the people who manufactured them. It is fascinating to know as to how the people managed the various needs of their daily life with the boon tools. The present work attempts to make out the techniques followed in their manufacture, their probable uses and the various vocations practised by the Neo-Chalcolithic or early village farming community.

Keywords: Antler, Bone, Celt, Techniques, Tools

Gupta, R.S. 2021. Neo-Chalcolithic Culture of Chirand: Approaches of Making Bone and Antler Tools. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 2, pp. 219-232

Rock art is artwork done on natural rock surfaces. This means it can be found on the sides or walls of caves, cliffs, sheer standing rocks, and also boulders. The present study is conducted is the rock art site which lies on the National Highway Jabalpur-Allahabad, near Katni is an important commercial city of M.P. It is marked with pictographs displaying a panorama of early art. A large number of microliths found on surface and in excavation substantiate the existence of the Mesolithic people dwelling at the site. A wide variety of symbolical representations make it significant. There are a large number of bichrome figures having outer and inner line made in different colour. Zoomorphs appearing in stencil is also noteworthy. Besides, recurrence of rhinoceros depiction indicates the art to be of an early period as the animal has been extinct from this region. The site is characterized by display of hunting, dancing, domestic activities and battle narratives. The style of making these pictographs varies from shelter to shelter. There are figures seem to be of early period owing to their style and subject matter as the wild animals and hunting narratives drawn in simple vertical strokeare very simple and naturalistic. On the other hand the later group of figures shows schematic and thematic contents and warfare narratives are seen with metal implements. It showcases the panorama of pictographs pertaining to wild as well as domestic animals, hunting scenes, dancing sports, domestic activities, war scenes, palm impressions, geometrical, floral designs and cognitive symbols. The excavation at this site reveals a deposit of Mesolithic settlement which might be associated with the authors of rock art.

Keywords: Anthropomorphs, Cognitive symbols, Haematite nodules, Microliths and Zoomorphs

Gupta, S.S. 2021. Rock Art of Jhinjhari: Petroglyphs and Pictographs. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 2, pp. 233-242

Promotion of age-old and syncretic folk culture of Assam can be used as a viable framework for self-determination of the indigenous communities of Assam facing the threat of loss of identity, land and livelihood. In an attempt to attain such a framework, cultures of folk instrument making, which are sites of history and embodied performance, should be studied. Existing studies about organology of Assam are replete with the physical and sonic study of folk musical instruments. However, little insight exists into the socio-cultural dimensions of these instruments. Inspired by a combination of de Sousa Santos’ ‘Epistemologies of the South’ (2014) and Shön’s (1983) concept of ‘knowing-in-action’, this paper aims to elucidate the prevailing cultures of folk instrument making in Assam and the methods of its knowledge transmission. In doing so, the folk musical instruments, which produce śruti (that which is heard), are diagnosed as objects of cultural memory or smṛti (that which is remembered) within non-literate and oral universes of the folk people of Assam. This paper includes, amongst other things, oral histories of folk instrument-makers of Assam, whose hands, ears and mastery of local resources are foundational to indigenous aesthetic systems and expressive practices.

Keywords: Assamese folk culture, Folk instrument-makers, Folk musical instruments, History of folk instruments, Organology

Dutta, U. 2021. Śruti to Smṛti: A Study of Cultures, Histories and Memories of Folk Instrument Making in Assam. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 1: 2, pp. 243-264