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The paper explores the expansion of Mughal political authority across the Himalayan region. The paper takes up two polities- the Parmars situated in the Central Himalayan region and the Kochs who were the rulers of Koch kingdom located in sub-Himalayan Bengal. Using these two regional case studies, this paper attempts to throw light on some of the strategies adopted by the Mughals to consolidate their imperial hold over smaller ruling elites of the Himalayan belt. The strategies examined in this paper are diverse- ranging from policies of collaboration to use of coercion. Internal dissensions within these regional ruling houses and the constant pressure exerted by the superior economic and military resources of the Mughals also contributed in convincing some Parmar and Koch rulers to acknowledge Mughal supremacy. Thus, the aim of this paper is to investigate the gamut of complex negotiations that shaped the trajectory of Mughal relations with local rulers of Garhwal and Kochbihar. An understanding of these relations would help in giving a coherent idea of the interactions between the Mughals and local ruling houses (both within and outside the Himalayan region), vital to any discussion on the nature of Mughal state formation. The final part of the paper argues that Mughal ambitions of consolidating their political authority over the Himalayan region was also dependent on their ability to reach out and win the support of the varied local social groups existing below the ruling elite. This paper contends that the failure of winning the support of such groups made it all the more difficult for the Mughals to exercise complete political authority over various localities in the Himalayan region. The concluding portion of the paper makes it evident that Mughal state formation in the Himalayan region and beyond needs to be evaluated in terms of the relations of the Mughals with the various local ruling houses as well as with numerous local social groups comprising of peasants, artisans, merchants, religious preachers, to name a few, all of whom existed as co-sharers of imperial sovereignty.

Keywords: Mughals, Regional History, Conflict, Diplomacy, Local social forces.

Chettry, A.T. 2023. Locating Mughal State Formation in the Himalayan Region: Two Regional Case Studies. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 1-12.

This paper is a study of the Mahabodhi Temple Controversy and the contours of struggle for it’s possession and ownership among Buddhists and Hindus. It starts with an analysis of various sects present in the Gaya Dharmakshetra before the arrival of Buddha. The arrival of the Mahant, getting firman from the Late Mughals, role of Alexander Cunningham, arrival of Anagarika Dharmapala, beginning of the Buddhist struggle for the control over the temple, role of Edwin Arnold, contribution of various national leaders. Then the period after Independence has been studied. What was the role of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, Surai Sasai, Bhante Anand and other Buddhist leaders in the struggle after Independence? The 1992 Bhikkhu Movement has been analysed. The study also discusses the amendments made in the Bodhgaya Temple Act in 2013, the role of leaders of Bihar like Lalu Prasad Yadav, Kali CharanYadav, RabriDev etc., and present situation of the temple, role of the Bodhgaya Temple Management Committee and activities of the Mahabodhi Society of India. This paper is based on the study of ancient texts, Hindu and Buddhist literature, archival records of the colonial period, judicial records and interviews of various important figures.

Keywords: Mahabodhi Temple, Buddhists, Hindus, Bhikkhu Movement

Panchal, A. 2023. The Buddhist Movement for Control and Possession of Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 13-25.

In the history of 8 decades, despite being the closest neighboring countries, the relationship between India and Pakistan has been mired in conflicts and war. Although being a secular nation, the majority of population in India follows Hindu religion while Pakistan is a Muslim country. However, until the British regime, India and Pakistan were not a separate nation. The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 against the British rule was fought together by Hindus and Muslims. Later, during the national independence movement, the mutual animosity between Hindus and Muslims broke out rapidly. Thus, before leaving their regime, the British in 1947, divided India into two independent countries: India and Pakistan. This paper conducts critical and comparative study about the impasse that has exists in the mutual relations between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. Based on the primary and secondary source evidences, the article states that the policy of the British to divide and rule had reflected in this dispute.

Keywords: Lahore convention, Muslim League, Indian National congress, Louis Mountbatten, Maharaja Harisingh.

Panchal, A. 2023. The Buddhist Movement for Control and Possession of Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 27-33.

Of all the ancient Indian republican tribes the Kunindas have the distinction of issuing the largest number and most beautiful of silver, billon, copper, brass and bronze coins. Indian literary sources refer to them under various variants like Kulinda, Kulinga, Pulinda, etc. but the coin-legends generally mention the name of the tribe as Kuninda. Their silver coins were struck on the model of the Indo-Greek hemi-drachms weighing about 2.0 – 2.2 g, probably for trade with them and others. The discovery of their coins from Taxila corroborates it. Their brass and bronze coins also betray their trade with tin and zinc producing communities. They bear legends in Brahmi and Kharoshthi. The latter script was employed by alien rulers also along with Greek on their coins. The devices, however, are purely indigenous. The Kunindas occupied the mid-western Himalayan region of Himachal and Uttarakhand with adjoining plains and have been identified with various peoples and sometimes branded as non-Aryans or of low lineage and thus having debatable ethnology. The present paper is an attempt to show that they were indigenous people following Vedic rituals and worshipping Hindu deities.

Keywords: Cunningham, Lakshmi, Kunets, Kuninda/Kulinda/Kulinga/Pulinda, Prinsep, Purola, Sanghol, Śyenachiti

Handa, D. 2023. Ethnology of the Kunindas. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 35-40.

The paper is the translation of a Russian paper by the distinguished historian, Dr. Aleksandr A. Semenenko, (Independent researcher, Voronezh City, Russia). The paper was originally published in the Proceedings of the Fifth Regional Science Conference (Society and power in the context of history, political science, sociology), Voronezh, 9 February 2021, pp. 230-235, V. N. Glaz’ev, ed., Voronezh State University, 2021. The paper is about the Rigvedic Motif of Soma in the form of a bird in a vessel as a marker of migrations of bearers of Rigvedic culture from India to the Aegean. This motif appears in the objects of worship or in the material culture, it serves as a marker of the appearance of, and as an indicator of the traces of migrations of tribes bearing elements of Rigvedic cultural elements, out of the Indus Valley. Vessels for the Soma-bird are consistently described as being wooden in the Rigveda, whereas beyond South Asia, they are found exclusively in stone, ceramic or metallic form. This indicates the chronological (or stage-wise) anteriority of Rigvedic cult of Soma as a bird in a vessel, as compared to the analogous cults of Indo-Europeans of Iran, Central Asia, Central Anatolia and the Aegean.

Keywords: Material culture, Rigvedic Motif, Soma-bird, Migration

Semenenko, A., & Karanth, D. 2023. The Rigvedic Motif of Soma in the Form of a Bird in a Vessel, as a Marker of Migrations of Bearers of Rigvedic Culture from India to the Aegean. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 41-57

Indian Christian art and architecture developed under multiple influences from both outside India and within India. Imprints of Christian influences from Asia Minor and Europe on one hand, and Indic influences on the other, can be observed in the artistic works, paintings and in church architecture. This article is an overview of the history of the development of Indian Christian art and architecture, wherein one can observe an ensample of Romanesque, Byzantine, Gothic, Baroque, Roccoco, Indian, and pragmatic church styles. It may be noted that while the earliest architectural style was in continuity with the culture of the ambient Hindu, Buddhist and Jain communities, it became overly European after the 16th century due to European intervention. Further, the emergence of the national consciousness in the 19th century influenced Indian Christian architecture making it more Indian. Presently, the attempt is both Indianisation and indigenisation integrating Indian traditions with the techniques of modern Europe.

Keywords: Christian art, Church Architecture, Indic influences, Indigenisation, Indianisation

Kalapura, J. 2023. Christian Art and Architecture in India: Archaeological and Historical Evidences from Ancient to Modern Times. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 59-71.

The aim of this study is to map the congruence between the symbolism in the Dipaṃkara Buddha story as recorded in the Jaatakaṭṭhakatha and three types of images of Avalokitesvara found in Gandhara, Sri Lanka, and ancient India. Analysis shows that the symbolism associated with Sumedhain the story matches the traits of the three types of Avalokiteśvara images. The study provides one more piece of evidence to corroborate the theory that Avalokiteśvara’siconography is based on Sumedha in the Dīpaṃkara Buddha story. The implications of the findings for interpreting relevant Buddhist images are discussed.

Keywords: Dipaṃkara Buddha, Avalokitesvara, Sumedha, Gandhara

Zhang, J. 2023. Prince and Ascetic: Mapping the Congruence between the Symbolism in a Southern Version of the Dipaṃkara Buddha Story and Three Types of Avalokiteśvara Images. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 73-85.

Jalandharāri or Jalandharāntaka is a saṁhāramūrti form of Śiva which is rarely demonstrated in art forms. Generally, we do not come across this form of Śiva either in the temple sculptures or in the paintings that adorn the walls and ceilings of the temples of South India. Among the myriad forms of the representations of Śiva in anthropomorphic form revealing his divine sports or līlas in visual arts, it is highly interesting and surprising to observe the scarcity of the images of the god of this particular form which is well documented in the literary texts. I have encountered one such rare image form of Śiva among the several relief sculptures carved on the pillars of the maṇḍapa hall of Aruṇāchalēśvara temple at Tiruvannamalai in Tamil Nadu State. An attempt is made here to identify the sculpture with the help of the mythological and the iconographical descriptions mentioned in the texts and image of the God known from the other place

Keywords: Chakra, Jalandharāri, Saṁhāramūrti, Tiruvaṇṇamalai,Vishṇu, Mythology, Iconographic

Krishnakumari, M. 2023. Identification of a Rare Image of Jalandharari form of Śiva. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 87-94.

This paper is an attempt to throw light on the depiction of Buddha image on stone, stucco and terracotta or clay in Gandhara art. The main objective behind this has been to bring into focus on the distinctive features of the Buddha image. The present study has revolved around the Buddha image. Gandhara art rising under the powerful Kushan kingdom and this was its blossom period. Therefore, the term Gandhara art applied to the Buddhist art and architecture that flourished in the Gandhara region 1st century to 5th century C.E. Gandhara art is the most fascinating chapter in the art history of the subcontinent. This region gives birth to a rich tradition of art and sculptures devoted to a unique holy human being Buddha. Emperor Kanishka gave physical shape to Buddha statue and the first Buddha figure was constructed in Gandhara and the most significant contribution of Gandhara art is the depiction of the Buddha in human form. Many questions are still open concerning the identification of scenes and characters within the narratives, as well as the classification of Buddha. Many aspects of Buddha image have been studied, however, some misted up in obscurity. Even today, many questions are remaining about the date of its period, its origin and the sources of its influence. All these issues are part of a discussion of the present research study.

Keywords: Gandhara Art, Kanishka, Buddha, Buddhism, Sculptures, Mahayana, Image

Aslam, N., & Bukhari, M. 2023. Characteristic Features of Buddha Image in Gandhara Art. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 95-109.

The paper examines the places, forms and the practices of religious worships at colonial Cuttack that reflected its multicultural population professing different religions and belonging to different sects and castes, which were a composite of both old and new practices. It elucidates the larger historical context of such cultural encounters between Europeans and the natives (Oriya), between Oriya and Bengali, between Oriya and the other non-Oriya peoples during the period. Since the cultural elements are considered as part of a complex than in isolation, it tries to map the many social encounters that took place in the realms of places, forms and practices of religious worships experienced in the city. In tune with the larger definition of culture, the study enquires how the process of social encounter and cultural exchanges took place among such groups within such domains at colonial Cuttack.

Keywords: Colonial Cuttack, Cultural encounter, neo-religious movements, Forms and places of worship

Mohanty, P.K. 2023. Culture as Domains of Contests & Protests: The Places, Forms and Practices of Religious Worship at Colonial Cuttak. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 111-121.

The settlements of Burhanpur in Khandesh and Khuldabad in the upper Deccan have deep connections, as Burhanpur was founded with Rauza (as Khuladabad was then called) as a template. The two important Sufis of Rauza became the inspirational figures for the twin settlements of Burhanpur and Zainabad. Even after the Mughal takeover of Burhanpur, its connection with Rauza was kept alive as Aurangzeb chose to be buried at the shrine of Shaikh ZainuddinShirazi. This essay explores the connected histories of these two towns in the medieval and early modern periods.

Keywords: Burhanpur, Khuldabad, Mughal, Khandesh, Deccan, Faruqi, Sufis

Sohoni, P. 2023. Reflections of Rauza: Connected Histories of Burhanpur and Khuldabad. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 123-126.

The current research is conducted to explore accelerating agricultural trends in Pakistan by analyzing ancient Indus agricultural strategies and role of green revolution technology. Increasing population of the country demands increasing production of food self-sufficiency and this can be resolve through the concept of green revolution. In general, the green revolution depend on the use of machinery for cultivation and harvest, on large-scale agricultural enterprises with access to credit (often from foreign investors), government-supported infrastructure projects, and access to low-wage agricultural workers (Wright, “Down slope and North”, p. 38). In contrast of the concept green revolution, range of crops and variable strategies including multi cropping were used to feed different urban centers in ancient Indus. This has important implications for our understanding of the development of the earliest cities in south Asia, particularly the organization of labor and provisioning throughout the year (Feeding ancient cities in south Asia, C. A Petrie, J. Bates, T. Higham , R.N Singh) Another aspect from the agricultural strategies in Ancient Indus is that, In ancient Indus change in agricultural strategies suggest that it was result of cultural change. It is urged that there was decline in traditional crops which feed the large population centers, at the same time as the emergence of new agricultural techniques and crop plants that spurred the development of local, independent communities. Although explanations for these disruptions in agricultural base tend to be regional in nature, they point to widespread causes such as tectonic movement or changes in river patterns, resulting in flooding and sedimentation. Crop failure would have been followed by settlement abandonment. Population dislocations, disrupted trade networks and new agricultural strategy would have then produced new, localized political units (steven weber),Thus by the fusion of these both concepts agricultural trends in Pakistan can be accelerated.

Keywords: Indus Civilization, Agriculture, Multi-Cropping, Environmental Adaptation, Resilience, Overlapping Rainfall System, Inundation, Green Revolution Technology

Kareem, Q. 2023. Contextualizing Ancient Indus Agricultural Strategies: Archaeology and Lessons for Today’s Sindh. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 127-136.

Cultural heritage includes both tangible and intangible heritage that are inherited from one generation to the next. Intangible cultural heritage are the immaterial identity markers of a community. This paper takes cognizance of the rich intangible cultural heritage of the Nagas and deliberates upon the various intangible cultural aspects. It delves into some of the tangible cultural materials that are teeming with symbolic meanings which are intangible. Culture is dynamic and changes over time due to various agents. This paper discusses how the intangible cultural heritage of the Nagasis going into oblivion due to modernization, globalisation and industrialization. The importance of intangible cultural heritage and its safeguarding is emphasized.

Keywords: Endangered, Intangible Cultural Heritage, Nagas, Safeguarding

Ngullie, R. C. 2023. Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Nagas. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 137-142.

The use of various ornaments is significant aspects of human cultural traits because they reveal preferences, personal ideologies, and aesthetic sense of the time and user. Ornaments were frequently created to reflect the personality, ethnicity, and economic standing of individuals within a specific community or cultural mileau. Ornaments that enter the archaeological record may have been lost accidentally, hoarded, stored for distribution, or discarded from manufacturing facilities. The archaeological findings from excavations provide legitimate evidence of ornaments, allowing us to gain a comprehensive understanding of numerous features of the prevalent decorations of a given age. It gives information about site links when similar styles are present in other regions, introduced by merchants and travellers, with styles shared among local producers as well.

Keywords: Preferences, Personal ideologies, Aesthetic sense, Ornaments

Ray, S., Smith, M.L., & Mohanty, R.K. 2023. Terracotta Ornaments: Regional and Faraway Consumption Patterns from Sisupalgarh, Odisha. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 143-154.

Durga puja is related to royalty from the era of epics. The Gupta, the Pallaba and the Bijoynagar dynasties used to celebrate Navaratri to show off their wealth and power to their feudatories and common subjects. The earliest reference of Druga puja in Bengal was mentioned in 12th Century A.D text “Ramcharit Manas” authored by poet Sandhakar Nandi. In the 18th century, Druga puja became very popular among the Bengali nobility and common people alike. Whatever the reason may be, in the late 18th and early 19th century all the solvent families of Calcutta used to worship Goddess Druga with devotion and spender. IN this way the old Bengali house hold pujas became synonym of “Banediana”. Contemporary European observers used to describe these pujas as the “three Blues”. Besides the elites, the common Bengali mass used to participate in the pujas in a passive manner. In the 21st century Bengal, the once solvent houses are in decline in their fortune due to abolition of zamindari rights, division of property among the branch families lack of interest from young generation. But still today they are trying to maintain the legacy of annual family Druga puja. Though number of old “Banedibari” pujas is decreasing rapidly stilltoday Bengali people use to share a mutual pride and nostalgia for these pujas. Now I am discussing about the concept of Goddess Durga as the beloved daughter of Bengali common people. During the 4th-16th century A.D. Various regional cultures had been picturized Shiva- Parvati in different perspective. In Bengal the Mangalkavyas originated during 15th-18th century narrated the Shiva- Parvati story in a Bengali perspective. Parvati here has been described as Uma. Here Shiva is described as a rustic figure that tills land and led a vagabond drug addicted life. Uma’s life with Shiva at Kailas is hard. Uma’s parents Giriraj and Menka are waiting for their daughter’s return. During the annual Druga puja Goddess Uma returned from Kailas to her parental house. Agamoni song celebrates her coming and Bijoya song mourns her departure from parental home. This paper deals with the transformation of Druga, from elite’s Goddess to beloved daughter in the folk religion of Bengal. I will use both primary and secondary sources to point out the transformation.

Keywords: “Durga Puja”, “Uma’’, “Mangal Kavyas”, “Banediana”, “Agomoni, Bijoya”.

Chakraborty, S. 2023. Transformation of Durga- from Elite’s Goddess to Beloved Daughter in the Folk Religion of Bengal. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1, pp. 155-164.

In the last forty years, exploration has been done to know the archaeological potential of large parts of Haryana. Unfortunately, very little work has been done in the southern part of the state. Mahendergarh was earlier known as ‘Kanaud’ because of its association with the Kanaudia group of Brahmans. During the middle of the nineteenth century, it came to be known as Mahendergarh. Although the nomenclature of the district is not very old, the antiquity of the area within it can be extended to even earlier times. In the absence of archaeological excavations in the district nothing more can be added. Most of the sites discovered in the district belong to the late medieval period. In the absence of evidence, it also becomes extremely difficult to trace the successive stages of the historical development of the region. Stone Age tools are the earliest evidence that attest to the presence of man in the southern part of Haryana. Based on archaeological investigation, remains from the Stone Age to the Medieval period have been found in the present study area.

Keywords: Antiquity, Cultures, Dohan, Exploration, Historical, Paleolithic, Settlements

Yadav, A. 2023. An Archaeological Explorations in Mahendergarh District, Haryana. South Asian History, Culture and Archaeology, 3: 1,pp. 165-172